NEET MDS Synopsis
Zygomatic Bone Reduction
General SurgeryZygomatic Bone Reduction
When performing a reduction of the zygomatic bone, particularly in the
context of maxillary arch fractures, several key checkpoints are used to assess
the success of the procedure. Here’s a detailed overview of the important
checkpoints for both zygomatic bone and zygomatic arch reduction.
Zygomatic Bone Reduction
Alignment at the Sphenozygomatic Suture:
While this is considered the best checkpoint for assessing the
reduction of the zygomatic bone, it may not always be the most practical
or available option in certain clinical scenarios.
Symmetry of the Zygomatic Arch:
Importance: This is the second-best checkpoint and
serves multiple purposes:
Maintains Interzygomatic Distance: Ensures that
the distance between the zygomatic bones is preserved, which is
crucial for facial symmetry.
Maintains Facial Symmetry and Aesthetic Balance:
A symmetrical zygomatic arch contributes to the overall aesthetic
appearance of the face.
Preserves the Dome Effect: The prominence of
the zygomatic arch creates a natural contour that is important for
facial aesthetics.
Continuity of the Infraorbital Rim:
A critical checkpoint indicating that the reduction is complete. The
infraorbital rim should show no step-off, indicating proper alignment
and continuity.
Continuity at the Frontozygomatic Suture:
Ensures that the junction between the frontal bone and the zygomatic
bone is intact and properly aligned.
Continuity at the Zygomatic Buttress Region:
The zygomatic buttress is an important structural component that
provides support and stability to the zygomatic bone.
Zygomatic Arch Reduction
Click Sound:
The presence of a click sound during manipulation can indicate
proper alignment and reduction of the zygomatic arch.
Symmetry of the Arches:
Assessing the symmetry of the zygomatic arches on both sides of the
face is crucial for ensuring that the reduction has been successful and
that the facial aesthetics are preserved.
Hyperpituitarism
General Pathology
Hyperpituitarism
Causes
A. Pituitary; usually anterior lobe
1. Adenoma (the most common cause)
2. Hyperplasia
3. Carcinoma
B. Extra-pituitary causes
1. Hormone producing extra-pituitary tumors (ectopic hormone production)
2. Certain hypothalamic disorders
Pituitary adenomas are classified according to the hormone(s) produced by the neoplastic cells; these are detected by immunohistochemically-stained tissue sections. Pituitary adenomas can be functional (associated with hormone excess with their related clinical manifestations) or silent.
Pathogenesis
Guanine nucleotide-binding protein (G-protein) mutations are the best characterized molecular abnormalities. Such mutations eventuate in a persistent increase in intracellular cAMP, which is a potent mitogenic stimulus promoting cellular proliferation and hormone synthesis and secretion. In the setting of MEN-1 syndrome there are mutations in the MEN-1 (menin) gene.
Gross features
• Adenomas are usually soft & well-circumscribed
• Larger lesions extend superiorly through the sellar diaphragm compressing the optic chiasm and adjacent structures .
• Invasive adenomas refer to nonencapsulated tumors that infiltrate adjacent bone, dura, and even brain.
Microscopic features.
• Adenomas are composed of monomorphic, polygonal cells displayed in sheets, cords, or papillae. Their nuclei may be uniform or pleomorphic but the mitotic activity is scanty. The cytoplasm of the constituent cells may be acidophilic, basophilic, or chromophobic.
• The connective tissue is scanty that is why many lesions are soft & even gelatinous in consistency.
Prolactinomas are the most common type of hyperfunctioning pituitary adenoma.
Hyperprolactinemia causes amenorrhea, galactorrhea, loss of libido, and infertility.
Growth Hormone-Producing Adenomas (somatotroph cell adenomas) are the second most common type of functional pituitary adenoma. Because the clinical manifestations of excessive growth hormone may be subtle, the tumor may be quite large by the time they come to clinical attention. If such tumors occur before closure of epiphyses (prepubertal children), excessive levels of growth hormone result in gigantism. If elevated levels persist, or present after closure of the epiphyses, individuals develop acromegaly.
Corticotroph Cell Adenomas are mostly small (microadenomas) at the time of diagnosis. They may be clinically silent or cause hypercortisolism referred to as Cushing disease
Other Anterior Pituitary Neoplasms
• Gonadotroph adenomas (luteinizing hormone [LH]-producing and follicle-stimulating hormone [FSH]producing)
• Thyrotroph (thyroid-stimulating hormone [TSH]-producing) adenomas
• Nonfunctioning pituitary adenomas (hormone-negative (null cell) adenomas) Nonfunctioning adenomas constitute approximately 25% of all pituitary tumors; they typically present through their mass effects.
Neurotransmitters
Pharmacology
Neurotransmitters can be classified into:
1. Biogenic amines:
ACh, NA, DA, 5-HT, Histamine
2. Amino acids:
Excitatory (glutamate & asparate)
Inhibitory (GABA& glycine)
3. Others:
Adenosine, melatonin
Structure of the CNS
Pharmacology
Structure of the CNS
The CNS is a highly complex tissue that controls all of the body activities and serves as a processing center that links the body to the outside world.
It is an assembly of interrelated “parts”and “systems”that regulate their own and each other’s activity.
1-Brain
2-Spinal cord
The brain is formed of 3 main parts:
I. The forebrain
• cerebrum
• thalamus
• hypothalamus
II. The midbrain
III. The hindbrain
• cerebellum
• pons
• medulla oblongata
Different Parts of the Different Parts of the CNS & their functions CNS & their functions
The cerebrum(cerebral hemispheres):
It constitutes the largest division of the brain.
The outer layer of the cerebrum is known as the “cerebral cortex”.
The cerebral cortex is divided into different functional areas:
1.Motorareas(voluntary movements)
2.Sensoryareas(sensation)
3.Associationareas(higher mental activities as consciousness, memory, and behavior).
Deep in the cerebral hemispheres are located the “basal ganglia” which include the “corpus striatum”& “substantianigra”.
The basal gangliaplay an important role in the control of “motor”activities
The thalamus:
It functions as a sensory integrating center for well-being and malaise.
It receives the sensory impulses from all parts of the body and relays them to specific areas of the cerebral cortex.
The hypothalamus:
It serves as a control center for the entire autonomic nervous system.
It regulates blood pressure, body temperature, water balance, metabolism, and secretions of the anterior pituitary gland.
The mid-brain:
It serves as a “bridge”area which connects the cerebrum to the cerebellum and pons.
It is concerned with “motor coordination”.
The cerebellum:
It plays an important role in maintaining the appropriate bodyposture& equilibrium.
The pons:
It bridges the cerebellum to the medulla oblongata.
The “locus ceruleus”is one of the important areas of the pons.
The medulla oblongata:
It serves as an organ of conduction for the passage of impulses between the brain and spinal cord.
It contains important centers:
• cardioinhibitory
• vasomotor
• respiratory
• vomiting(chemoreceptor trigger zone, CTZ).
The spinal cord:
It is a cylindrical mass of nerve cells that extends from the end of the medulla oblongata to the lower lumbar vertebrae.
Impulses flow from and to the brain through descending and ascending tracts of the spinal cord.
SELECTION OF SPRUE
Dental Materials
SELECTION OF SPRUE
1 . DIAMETER :
It should be approximately the same size of the thickest portion of the wax pattern .
Too small sprue diameter suck back porosity results .
2 . SPRUE FORMER ATTACHMENT :
Sprue should be attached to the thickest portion of the wax pattern .
It should be Flared for high density alloys & Restricted for low density alloys .
3 . SPRUE FORMER POSITION
Based on the
1. Individual judgement .
2. Shape & form of the wax pattern .
Patterns may be sprued directly or indirectly .
Indirect method is commonly used
Hypnosis
PedodonticsHypnosis in Pediatric Dentistry
Hypnosis: An altered state of consciousness
characterized by heightened suggestibility, focused attention, and increased
responsiveness to suggestions. It is often used to facilitate behavioral and
physiological changes that are beneficial for therapeutic purposes.
Use in Pediatrics: According to Romanson (1981),
hypnosis is recognized as one of the most effective nonpharmacologic
therapies for children, particularly in managing anxiety and enhancing
cooperation during medical and dental procedures.
Dental Application: In the field of dentistry, hypnosis
is referred to as "hypnodontics" (Richardson, 1980) and is also known as
psychosomatic therapy or suggestion therapy.
Benefits of Hypnosis in Dentistry
Anxiety Reduction:
Hypnosis can significantly alleviate anxiety in children, making
dental visits less stressful. This is particularly important for
children who may have dental phobias or anxiety about procedures.
Pain Management:
One of the primary advantages of hypnosis is its ability to reduce
the perception of pain. By using focused attention and positive
suggestions, dental professionals can help minimize discomfort during
procedures.
Behavioral Modification:
Hypnosis can encourage positive behaviors in children, such as
cooperation during treatment, which can reduce the need for sedation or
physical restraint.
Enhanced Relaxation:
The hypnotic state promotes deep relaxation, helping children feel
more at ease in the dental environment.
Mechanism of Action
Suggestibility: During hypnosis, children become more
open to suggestions, allowing the dentist to guide their thoughts and
feelings about the dental procedure.
Focused Attention: The child’s attention is directed
away from the dental procedure and towards calming imagery or positive
thoughts, which helps reduce anxiety and discomfort.
Implementation in Pediatric Dentistry
Preparation:
Prior to the procedure, the dentist should explain the process of
hypnosis to both the child and their parents, addressing any concerns
and ensuring understanding.
Induction:
The dentist may use various techniques to induce a hypnotic state,
such as guided imagery, progressive relaxation, or verbal suggestions.
Suggestion Phase:
Once the child is in a relaxed state, the dentist can provide
positive suggestions related to the procedure, such as feeling calm,
relaxed, and pain-free.
Post-Hypnosis:
After the procedure, the dentist should gradually bring the child
out of the hypnotic state, reinforcing positive feelings and
experiences.
Post viral cirrhosis
General Pathology
Post viral (post hepatitic) cirrhosis (15-20%)
Cause:- Viral hepatitis (mostly HBV or HCV)
Acute hepatitis → chronic hepatitis → cirrhosis.
Pathology
Liver is shrunken. Fatty change is absent (except with HCV). Cirrhosis is mixed.
M/E :-
Hepatocytes-show degeneration, necrosis as other types of cirrhosis.
Fibrous septa -They are thick and immature (more cellular and vascular).
- Irregular margins (piece meal necrosis).
- Heavy lymphocytic infiltrate.
Prognosis:- - More rapid course than alcoholic cirrhosis.Hepatocellular carcinoma is more liable to occur
POLISHING MATERIALS
Dental Materials
POLISHING MATERIALS
1 Tin Oxide. Tin oxide is used in polishing teeth and metal restorations. Tin oxide is a fine, white powder that is made into a paste by adding water or glycerin.
2. Pumice. Pumice is used as an abrasive and polishing agent for acrylic resins, amalgams, and gold. It consists mainly of complex silicates of aluminum, potassium, and sodium. Two grades--flour of pumice and coarse pumice--are listed in the Federal Supply Catalog.
3. Chalk (Whiting). Chalk is used for polishing acrylic resins and metals. It is composed primarily of calcium carbonate.
4.Tripoli. Tripoli is usually used for polishing gold and other metals. It is made from certain porous rocks.
5. Rouge (Jeweler's). Rouge is used for polishing gold and is composed of iron oxide. It is usually in cake or stick form.
6. Zirconium Silicate. Zirconium silicate is used for cleaning and polishing teeth. It may be mixed with water or with fluoride solution for caries prevention treatment. For full effectiveness, instructions must be followed exactly to obtain the proper proportions of powder to liquid.