The Nose

• The nose is the superior part of the respiratory tract and contains the peripheral organ of smell.
• It is divided into right and left nasal cavities by the nasal septum.
• The nasal cavity is divided into the olfactory area and the respiratory area.

• U-shaped bone
• Body
• Greater horn
• Lesser horn

• Suspended by ligaments from the styloid process

Nerves of the Palate

• The sensory nerves of the palate, which are branches of the pterygopalatine ganglion, are the greater and lesser palatine nerves.
• They accompany the arteries through the greater and lesser palatine foramina, respectively.

• The greater palatine nerve supplies the gingivae, mucous membrane, and glands of the hard palate.

• The lesser palatine nerve supplies the soft palate.

• Another branch of the pterygopalatine ganglion, the nasopalatine nerve, emerges from the incisive foramen and supplies the mucous membrane of the anterior part of the hard palate.

Endochondral ossification

• A cartilage model exists
• Through intramembraneous ossification in the perichondrium a collar of bone forms around the middle part of the cartilage model
• The perichondrium change to a periostium
• The bone collar cuts off the nutrient and oxygen supply to the chondrocytes in the cartilage model
• The chondrocytes then increase in size and resorb the surrounding cartilage matrix until only thin vertical septae of matrix are left over
• These thin plates then calcify after which the chondrocytes die
• The osteoclasts make holes in the bone collar through which blood vessels can now enter the cavities left behind by the chondrocytes
• With the blood vessels osteoprogenitor cells enter the tissue
• They position themselves on the calcified cartilage septae, change into osteoblasts and start to deposit bone to form trabeculae
• In the mean time the periosteum is depositing bone on the outside of the bone collar making it thicker and thicker
• The trabeculae,consisting of a core of calcified cartilage with bone deposited on top of it, are eventually resorbed by osteoclasts to form the marrow cavity
• The area where this happens is the primary ossification centre and lies in what is called the diaphysis (shaft)
• This process spreads in two directions towards the two ends of the bone the epiphysis
• In the two ends (heads) of the bone a similar process takes place
• A secondary ossification centre develops from where ossification spreads radially
• Here no bone collar forms
• The outer layer of the original cartilage remains behind to form the articulating cartilage
• Between the primary and the secondary ossification centers two epiphyseal cartilage plates remain
• This is where the bone grows in length

• From the epiphyseal cartilage plate towards the diaphysis a number of zones can be identified:

 Resting zone of cartilage

 Hyaline cartilage

 Proliferation zone

 Chondrocytes divide to form columns of cells that mature.

Hypertrophic cartilage zone

 Chondrocytes become larger, accumulate glycogen, resorb the surrounding matrix so that only thin septae of cartilage remain 

Calcification and degeneration zone

The thin septae of cartilage become calcified.

The calsified septae cut off the nutrient supply to the chondrocytes so subsequently they die.

Ossification zone.

Osteoclasts make openings in the bone collar through which blood vessels then invade the spaces left vacant by the chondrocytes that died.

Osteoprogenitor cells come in with the blood and position themselves on the calcified cartilage

septae, change into osteoblasts and start to deposit bone.

 When osteoblasts become trapped in bone they change to osteocytes.

Growth and remodeling of bone

Long bones become longer because of growth at the epiphyseal plates

They become wider because of bone formed by the periosteum

The marrow cavity becomes bigger because of resorbtion by the osteoclasts

Fracture repair

When bone is fractured a blood clot forms

 Macrophages then remove the clot, remaining osteocytes and damaged bone matrix

The periosteum and endosteum produce osteoprogenitor cells that form a cellular tissue in the fracture area

 Intramembranous and endochondral ossification then take place in this area forming trabeculae.

Trabeculae connect the two ends of the broken bone to form a callus

Remodelling then takes place to restore the bone as it was

Joints

The capsule of a joint seals off the articular cavity,  

The capsule has two layers

 fibrous (outer)

synovial (inner)

The synovial layer is lined by squamous or cuboidal epithelial cells,  Under this layer is a layer of loose or dense CT, The lining cells consists of two types:

- A cells

- B cells

They secrete the synovial fluid

They are different stages of the same cell, They are also phagocytic., The articular cartilage has fibres that run perpendicular to the bone and then turn to run parallel to the surface

The Lateral Wall of the Orbit

• This wall is thick, particularly its posterior part, which separates the orbit from the middle cranial fossa.
• The lateral wall is formed by the frontal process of the zygomatic bone and the greater wing of the sphenoid bone.

• Anteriorly, the lateral wall lies between the orbit and the temporal fossa.

• The lateral wall is partially separated from the roof by the superior orbital fissure.