NEET MDS Lessons
Physiology
The hepatic portal system
The capillary beds of most tissues drain into veins that lead directly back to the heart. But blood draining the intestines is an exception. The veins draining the intestine lead to a second set of capillary beds in the liver. Here the liver removes many of the materials that were absorbed by the intestine:
- Glucose is removed and converted into glycogen.
- Other monosaccharides are removed and converted into glucose.
- Excess amino acids are removed and deaminated.
- The amino group is converted into urea.
- The residue can then enter the pathways of cellular respiration and be oxidized for energy.
- Many nonnutritive molecules, such as ingested drugs, are removed by the liver and, often, detoxified.
The liver serves as a gatekeeper between the intestines and the general circulation. It screens blood reaching it in the hepatic portal system so that its composition when it leaves will be close to normal for the body.
Furthermore, this homeostatic mechanism works both ways. When, for example, the concentration of glucose in the blood drops between meals, the liver releases more to the blood by
- converting its glycogen stores to glucose (glycogenolysis)
- converting certain amino acids into glucose (gluconeogenesis).
The Posterior Lobe
The posterior lobe of the pituitary releases two hormones, both synthesized in the hypothalamus, into the circulation.
- Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH).
ADH is a peptide of 9 amino acids. It is also known as arginine vasopressin. ADH acts on the collecting ducts of the kidney to facilitate the reabsorption of water into the blood.- A deficiency of ADH
- leads to excessive loss of urine, a condition known as diabetes nsipidus.
- A deficiency of ADH
- Oxytocin
Oxytocin is a peptide of 9 amino acids. Its principal actions are:- stimulating contractions of the uterus at the time of birth
- stimulating release of milk when the baby begins to suckle
Maintenance of Homeostasis
The kidneys maintain the homeostasis of several important internal conditions by controlling the excretion of substances out of the body.
Ions. The kidney can control the excretion of potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, phosphate, and chloride ions into urine. In cases where these ions reach a higher than normal concentration, the kidneys can increase their excretion out of the body to return them to a normal level. Conversely, the kidneys can conserve these ions when they are present in lower than normal levels by allowing the ions to be reabsorbed into the blood during filtration. (See more about ions.)
pH. The kidneys monitor and regulate the levels of hydrogen ions (H+) and bicarbonate ions in the blood to control blood pH. H+ ions are produced as a natural byproduct of the metabolism of dietary proteins and accumulate in the blood over time. The kidneys excrete excess H+ ions into urine for elimination from the body. The kidneys also conserve bicarbonate ions, which act as important pH buffers in the blood.
Osmolarity. The cells of the body need to grow in an isotonic environment in order to maintain their fluid and electrolyte balance. The kidneys maintain the body’s osmotic balance by controlling the amount of water that is filtered out of the blood and excreted into urine. When a person consumes a large amount of water, the kidneys reduce their reabsorption of water to allow the excess water to be excreted in urine. This results in the production of dilute, watery urine. In the case of the body being dehydrated, the kidneys reabsorb as much water as possible back into the blood to produce highly concentrated urine full of excreted ions and wastes. The changes in excretion of water are controlled by antidiuretic hormone (ADH). ADH is produced in the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary gland to help the body retain water.
Blood Pressure. The kidneys monitor the body’s blood pressure to help maintain homeostasis. When blood pressure is elevated, the kidneys can help to reduce blood pressure by reducing the volume of blood in the body. The kidneys are able to reduce blood volume by reducing the reabsorption of water into the blood and producing watery, dilute urine. When blood pressure becomes too low, the kidneys can produce the enzyme renin to constrict blood vessels and produce concentrated urine, which allows more water to remain in the blood.
Bleeding Disorders
A deficiency of a clotting factor can lead to uncontrolled bleeding.
The deficiency may arise because
- not enough of the factor is produced or
- a mutant version of the factor fails to perform properly.
Examples:
- von Willebrand disease (the most common)
- hemophilia A for factor 8 deficiency
- hemophilia B for factor 9 deficiency.
- hemophilia C for factor 11 deficiency
In some cases of von Willebrand disease, either a deficient level or a mutant version of the factor eliminates its protective effect on factor 8. The resulting low level of factor 8 mimics hemophilia A.
A heart rate that is persistently greater than 100bpm is termed tachycardia. A heart rate that is persistantly lower than 60 pulse per min is termed bradycardia. Let's examine some factors that could cause a change in heart rate:
- Increased heart rate can be caused by:
- Increased output of the cardioacceleratory center. In other words, greater activity of sympathetic nerves running to the heart and a greater release of norepinephrine on the heart.
- Decreased output of the cardioinhibitory center. In other words, less vagus nerve activity and a decrease in the release of acetylcholine on the heart.
- Increased release of the hormone epinephrine by the adrenal glands.
- Nicotine.
- Caffeine.
- Hyperthyroidism - i.e., an overactive thyroid gland. This would lead to an increased amount of the hormone thyroxine in the blood.
- Decreased heart rate can be caused by:
- Decreased activity of the cardioacceleratory center.
- Increased activity of the cardioinhibitory center.
- Many others.
1 - Passive processes - require no expenditure of energy by a cell:
- Simple diffusion = net movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. The rate of diffusion is influenced by:
- concentration gradient
- cross-sectional area through which diffusion occurs
- temperature
- molecular weight of a substance
- distance through which diffusion occurs
- Osmosis = diffusion of water across a semi permeable membrane (like a cell membrane) from an area of low solute concentration to an area of high solute concentration
- Facilitated diffusion = movement of a substance across a cell membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. This process requires the use of 'carriers' (membrane proteins). In the example below, a ligand molecule (e.g., acetylcholine) binds to the membrane protein. This causes a conformational change or, in other words, an 'opening' in the protein through which a substance (e.g., sodium ions) can pass.
2 - Active processes - require the expenditure of energy by cells:
- Active transport = movement of a substance across a cell membrane from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration using a carrier molecule
- Endo- & exocytosis - moving material into (endo-) or out of (exo-) cell in bulk form
Phases of cardiac cycle :
1. Early diastole ( also called the atrial diastole , or complete heart diastole) : During this phase :
- Atria are relaxed
- Ventricles are relaxed
- Semilunar valves are closed
- Atrioventricular valves are open
During this phase the blood moves passively from the venous system into the ventricles ( about 80 % of blood fills the ventricles during this phase.
2. Atrial systole : During this phase :
- Atria are contracting
- Ventricles are relaxed
- AV valves are open
- Semilunar valves are closed
- Atrial pressure increases.the a wave of atrial pressure appears here.
- P wave of ECG starts here
- intraventricular pressure increases due to the rush of blood then decrease due to continuous relaxation of ventricles.
The remaining 20% of blood is moved to fill the ventricles during this phase , due to atrial contraction.
3. Isovolumetric contraction : During this phase :
- Atria are relaxed
- Ventricles are contracting
- AV valves are closed
- Semilunar valves are closed
- First heart sound
- QRS complex.
The ventricular fibers start to contract during this phase , and the intraventricular pressure increases. This result in closing the AV valves , but the pressure is not yet enough to open the semilunar valves , so the blood volume remain unchanged , and the muscle fibers length also remain unchanged , so we call this phase as isovolumetric contraction ( iso : the same , volu= volume , metric= length).
4. Ejection phase : Blood is ejected from the ventricles into the aorta and pulmonary artery .
During this phase :
- Ventricles are contracting
- Atria are relaxed
- AV valves are closed
- Semilunar valves are open
- First heart sound
- Intraventricular pressure is increased , due to continuous contraction
- increased aortic pressure .
- T wave starts.
5. Isovolumetric relaxation: This phase due to backflow of blood in aorta and pulmonary system after the ventricular contraction is up and the ventricles relax . This backflow closes the semilunar valves .
During this phase :
- Ventricles are relaxed
- Atrial are relaxed
- Semilunar valves are closed .
- AV valves are closed.
- Ventricular pressure fails rapidly
- Atrial pressure increases due to to continuous venous return. the v wave appears here.
- Aortic pressure : initial sharp decrease due to sudden closure of the semilunar valve ( diacrotic notch) , followed by secondary rise in pressure , due to elastic recoil of the aorta ( diacrotic wave) .
- T wave ends in this phase