NEET MDS Lessons
Pharmacology
Gentamicin
Gentamicin is a aminoglycoside antibiotic, and can treat many different types of bacterial infections, particularly Gram-negative infection.
Gentamicin works by binding to a site on the bacterial ribosome, causing the genetic code to be misread.
Like all aminoglycosides, gentamicin does not pass the gastro-intestinal tract, so it can only be given intravenously or intramuscularly.
Gentamicin can cause deafness or a loss of equilibrioception in genetically susceptible individuals. These individuals have a normally harmless mutation in their DNA, that allows the gentamicin to affect their cells. The cells of the ear are particularly sensitive to this.
Gentamicin can also be highly nephrotoxic, particularly if multiple doses accumulate over a course of treatment. For this reason gentamicin is usually dosed by body weight. Various formulae exist for calculating gentamicin dosage. Also serum levels of gentamicin are monitored during treatment.
E. Coli has shown some resistance to Gentamicin, despite being gram-negative
Roxithromycin
It is used to treat respiratory tract, urinary and soft tissue infections. Roxithromycin is derived from erythromycin, containing the same 14-membered lactone ring. However, an N-oxime side chain is attached to the lactone ring.
Roxithromycin has similar antimicrobial spectrum as erythromycin, but is more effective against certain gram-negative bacteria, particularly Legionella pneumophilae.
When taken before a meal, roxithromycin is very rapidly absorbed, and diffused into most tissues and Phagocytes Only a small portion of roxithromycin is metabolised. Most of roxithromycin is secreted unchanged into the bile and some in expired air
Kinins
Peptide that are mediated in the inflammation.
Action of kinin:
On CVS: vasodilatation in the kidneys, heart, intestine, skin, and liver. It is 10 times active than histamine as vasodilator.
On exocrine and endocrine glands: kinin modulate the tone of pancreas and salivery glands and help regulate GIT motility, also affect the transport of water and electrolytes, glucose and amino acids through epithelial cell transport.
ANTIASTHMATIC AGENTS
Classification for antiasthmatic drugs.
I. Bronchodilators
i. Sympathomimetics (adrenergic receptor agonists)
Adrenaline, ephedrine, isoprenaline, orciprenaline, salbutamol, terbutaline, salmeterol, bambuterol
ii. Methylxanthines (theophylline and its derivatives)
Theophylline
Hydroxyethyl theophylline
Theophylline ethanolate of piperazine
iii. Anticholinergics
Atropine methonitrate
Ipratropium bromide
II. Mast cell stabilizer
Sodium cromoglycate
Ketotifen
III. Corticosteroids
Beclomethasone dipropionate
Beclomethasone (200 µg) with salbutamol
IV. Leukotriene pathway inhibitors
Montelukast
Zafirlukast
Hypothalamic - Pituitary Drugs
Somatropin
Growth hormone (GH) mimetic
Mechanism
agonist at GH receptors
increases production of insulin growth factor-1 (IGF-1)
Clinical use
GH deficiency
increase adult height for children with conditions associated with short stature
Turner syndrome
wasting in HIV infection
short bowel syndrome
Toxicity
scoliosis
edema
gynecomastia
increased CYP450 activity
Octreotide
Somatostatin mimetic
Mechanism
agonist at somatostatin receptors
Clinical use
acromegaly
carcinoid
gastrinoma
glucagonoma
acute esophageal variceal bleed
Toxicity
GI upset
gallstones
bradycardia
Oxytocin
Mechanism
agonist at oxytocin receptor
Clinical use
stimulation of labor
uterine contractions
control of uterine hemorrhage after delivery
stimulate milk letdown
Toxicity
fetal distress
abruptio placentae
uterine rupture
Desmopressin
ADH (vasopressin) mimetic
Mechanism
agonist at vasopressin V2 receptors
Clinical use
central (pituitary) diabetes insipidus
hemophilia A (factor VIII deficiency)
increases availability of factor VIII
von Willebrand disease
increases release of von Willebrand factor from endothelial cells
Toxicity
GI upset
headache
hyponatremia
allergic reaction
Halothane (Fluothane) MAC 0.76%, Blood/gas solubility ratio 2.3
- Nonflammable.
- Any depth of anesthesia can be obtained in the absence of hypoxia.
- Halothane produces a marked hypotensive effect
- accompanies hypotension.
- Halothane “sensitizes” the ventricular conduction system in the heart to the action of catecholamines. However, ventricular arrhythmias are rare if
- respiratory acidosis, hypoxia and other causes of sympathetic stimulation are avoided.
- Respiration is depressed by all anesthetic concentrations.
- Halothane is metabolized to a significant extent and some of its metabolic produces have been shown to be hepatotoxic.
- Can produce a malignant hyperpyrexia due to an uncontrolled hypermetabolic reaction in skeletal muscle.
Halothane is generally used with nitrous oxide, an opiate and a neuromuscular blocking drug.
Sedative-Hypnotic Drugs
Sedative drug is the drug that reduce anxiety (anxiolytic) and produce sedation and referred to as minor tranquillisers.
Hypnotic drug is the drug that induce sleep
Effects: make you sleepy; general CNS depressants
Uses: sedative-hypnotic (insomnia ), anxiolytic (anxiety, panic, obsessive compulsive, phobias), muscle relaxant (spasticity, dystonias), anticonvulsant (absence, status epilepticus, generalized seizures—rapid tolerance develops), others (pre-operative medication and endoscopic procedures, withdrawal from chronic use of ethanol or other CNS depressants)
1- For panic disorder alprazolam is effective.
2- muscle disorder: (reduction of muscle tone and coordination) diazepam is useful in treatment of skeletal muscle spasm e.g. muscle strain and spasticity of degenerative muscle diseases.
3-epilepsy: by increasing seizure threshold.
Clonazepam is useful in chronic treatment of epilepsy while diazepam is drug of choice in status epilepticus.
4-sleep disorder: Three BDZs are effective hypnotic agents; long acting flurazepam, intermediate acting temazepam and short
acting triazolam. They decrease the time taken to get to sleep They increase the total duration of sleep
5-control of alcohol withdrawals symptoms include diazepam, chlordiazepoxide, clorazepate and oxazepam.
6-in anesthesia: as preanesthetic amnesic agent (also in cardioversion) and as a component of balanced anesthesia
Flurazepam significantly reduce both sleep induction time and numbers of awakenings and increase duration of sleep and little rebound insomnia. It may cause daytime sedation.
Temazepam useful in patients who experience frequent awakening, peak sedative effect occur 2-3 hr. after an oral dose.
Triazolam used to induce sleep in recurring insomnia and in individuals have difficulty in going to sleep, tolerance develop within few days and withdrawals result in rebound insomnia therefore the drug used intermittently.
Drugs and their actions
1. Benzodiazepines: enhance the effect of gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) at GABA receptors on chloride channels. This increases chloride channel conductance in the brain (GABA A A receptors are ion channel receptors).
2. Barbiturates: enhance the effect of GABA on the chloride channel but also increase chloride channel conductance independently of GABA, especially at high doses
3. Zolpidem and zaleplon: work in a similar manner to benzodiazepines but do so only at the benzodiazepine (BZ1) receptor type. (Both BZ1and BZ2 are located on chloride channels.)
4. Chloral hydrate: probably similar action to barbiturates.
5. Buspirone: partial agonist at a specific serotonin receptor (5-HT1A).
6. Other sedatives (e.g., mephenesin, meprobamate, methocarbamol, carisoprodol, cyclobenzaprine):
mechanisms not well-described. Several mechanisms may be involved.
7. Baclofen: stimulates GABA linked to the G protein, Gi , resulting in an increase in K + conductance and a decrease in Ca2+ conductance. (Other drugs mentioned above do not bind to the GABA B receptor.)
8. Antihistamines (e.g., diphenhydramine): block H1 histamine receptors. Doing so in the CNS leads to sedation.
9. Ethyl alcohol: its several actions include a likely effect on the chloride channel.