NEET MDS Lessons
Pharmacology
Laxatives and cathartics (purgatives)
Constipation is a common problem in older adults and laxatives are often used or overused. Non drug measures to prevent constipation (e.g. increasing intake of fluid and high–fiber foods, exercise) are much preferred to laxatives.
Laxatives and cathartics are drugs used orally to evacuate the bowels or to promote bowel elimination (defecation). Both terms are used interchangeably because it is the dose that determines the effects rather than a particular drug. For example, Castor oil laxative effect = 4ml while Cathartic effect = 15-60ml
The term laxative implies mild effects, and eliminative of soft formed stool. The term cathartic implies strong effects and elimination of liquid or semi liquid stool.
Laxatives are randomly classified depending on mode of action as:
1. Bulk-forming laxatives: are substances that are largely unabsorbed from the intestine.
They include psyllium, bran, methylcellulose, etc. When water is added, the substances swell and become gel-like which increases the bulk of the faecal mass that stimulates peristalsis and defecation.
2. Osmotic laxatives such as magnesium sulphate, magnesium hydroxide, sodium phosphate, etc. These substances are not efficiently absorbed and cause water retention in the colon. The latter causes increase in volume and pressure which stimulates peristalsis and defecation.
Lactulose is a semisynthetic disaccharide sugar that also acts as an osmotic laxative.
Electrolyte solutions containing polyethylene glycol(PEG) are used as colonic lavage solutions to prepare the gut for radiologic or endoscopic procedures
3. Stimulant (irritant) laxatives: these are irritant that stimulate elimination of large bowel contents. Individual drugs are castor oil, bisacodyl, phenolphthalein, cascara sagrada, glycerine, etc. The faeces are moved too rapidly and watery stool is eliminated. Glycerine can be administered rectally as suppositories.
4. Faecal softeners: they decrease the surface tension of the faecal mass to allow water to penetrate into the stool. They have detergent– like property e.g. docusate(docusate sodium, docusate calcium, and docusate spotassium. )
5. Lubricant laxatives e.g. liquid paraffin (mineral oil). It lubricates the intestine and is thought to soften stool by preventing colonic absorption of faecal water. They are used as retention enema.
6. Chloride channel activators
Lubiprostone works by activating chloride channels to increase fluid secretion in the intestinal lumen. This eases the passage of stools and causes little change in electrolyte balances. Nausea is a relatively common side effect with lubiprostone.
Clinical indications of laxatives
1. To relieve constipation.
2. To prevent straining.
3. To empty the bowel in preparation for bowel surgery or diagnostic procedures.
4. To accelerate elimination of potentially toxic substances from the GI tract.
5. To accelerate excretion of parasite after anti-helmintic drugs have been administered.
Carbamazepine (Tegretol): most common; for generalized tonic-clonic and all partial seizures; especially active in temporal lobe epilepsies
Mechanism: ↓ reactivation of Na channels (↑ refractory period, blocks high frequency cell firing, ↓ seizure spread)
Side effects: induces hepatic microsomal enzymes (can enhance metabolism of other drugs)
Barbiturates (BARBS):
were used for antianxiety, sedation but now replaced by BZs; for IV sedation & oral surgery
Advantages: effective and relatively inexpensive (common in third world countries), extensively studied so have lots of information about side effects/toxicity
Peripheral effects: respiratory depression (with ↑ dose), CV effects (↓ BP and HR at sedative-hypnotic doses), liver effects (bind CYP450 → induction of drug metabolism and other enzymes → ↑ metabolism of steroids, vitamins K/D, cholesterol, and bile salts)
General mechanisms: potently depress neuron activity in the reticular formation (pons, medulla) and cortex
o Bind barbiturate site on GABAA receptor → enhanced inhibitory effect and ↑ Cl influx; → ↓ frequency of Cl channel opening but ↑ open time of Cl channels (in presense of GABA) so more Cl enters channel (at high [ ] they directly ↑ Cl conductance in absence of GABA- act as GABA mimetics)
Metabolism: liver microsomal drug metabolizing enzymes; most are dealkylated, conjugated by glucoronidation; renal excretion
Uses: anticonvulsant, preoperative sedation, anesthesia
Side effects: sedation, confusion, weight gain, N/V, skin rash
Contraindications: pain (can ↑ sensitivity to painful situations → restlessness, excitement, and delirium) and pulmonary insufficiency (since BARBS → respiratory depression)
Drug interactions: have additive depressant affects when taken with other CNS depressants, enhance depressive effects (of antipsychotics, antihistamines, antiHTNs, ethanol, and TCAs), and accelerates metabolism (of β blockers, Ca-channel blockers, corticosteroids, estrogens, phenothiazines, valproic acid, and theophylline; occurs with chronic BARB ingestion)
Acute toxicity: lower therapeutic index; can be fatal if OD; BARB poisoning a major problem (serious toxicity at only 10x hypnotic dose; → respiratory depression, circulatory collapse, renal failure, pulmonary complications which can be life-threatening)
Symptoms: severe respiratory depression, coma, severe hypotension, hypothermia
Treatment: support respiration and BP, gastric lavage (if recent ingestion)
Tolerance: metabolic (induce hepatic metabolic enzymes, occurs within a few days), pharmacodynamic (↓ CNS response with chronic exposure occurs over several weeks; unknown mechanism), and cross tolerance (tolerance to other general CNS depressants)
Physical dependence: develops with continued use; manifest by withdrawal symptoms (mild = anxiety, insomnia, dizziness, nausea; severe = vomiting, hyperthermia, tremors, delirium, convulsions, death)
Other similar agents: meprobamate (Equanil; pharmacological properties like BZs and barbiturates but mechanism unknown) and chloral hydrate (common sedative in pediatric dentistry for diagnostic imaging; few adverse effects but low therapeutic index)
Other drugs for antianxiety: β-adrenoceptor blockers (e.g., propranolol; block autonomic effects- palpitations, sweating, shaking; used for disabling situational anxiety like stage fright), buspirone (partial agonist at serotonin 1A receptor, produces only anxiolytic effects so no CNS depression, dependence, or additive depression with ethanol but onset of action is 1-3 weeks), lodipem (not a BZ but does act at BZ receptors)
Drugs Used in Diabetes
Goals of diabetes treatment
lower serum glucose to physiologic range
keep insulin levels in physiologic range
eliminate insulin resistance
best initial step in management: weight loss, contractile-based exercise weight loss is more important for insulin sensitivity than is a low-carb diet
Modalities of diabetes treatment
Type I DM
insulin
low-sugar diet
Type II DM
exercise
diet
insulin
6 classes of drugs
Insulin
Sulfonylureas - Glyburide
Meglitinides - Nateglinide
Biguanides Metformin
Glitazones (thiazolidinediones) Pioglitazone
α-glucosidase inhibitors Acarbose
GLP-1 mimetics (incretin mimetics) Exenatide
Amylin analog Pramlintide
Quinolone
Quinolones and fluoroquinolones form a group of broad-spectrum antibiotics. They are derived from nalidixic acid.
Fluoroquinolone antibiotics are highly potent and considered relatively safe.
MOA : Quinolones act by inhibiting the bacterial DNA gyrase enzyme. This way they inhibit nucleic acid synthesis and act bacteriocidically.
Drugs :Nalidixic acid, Ciprofloxacin , Levofloxacin, Norfloxacin ,Ofloxacin, Moxifloxacin , Trovafloxacin
Beta-Adrenergic blocking Agents
• Prototype - Propranolol
• Prevent or inhibit sympathetic stimulation
– Reduces heart rate
– Myocardial contractility
– Reduce BP - decreases myocardial workload and O2 demand
• In long-term management used to decrease frequency and severity of anginal attacks
• Added when nitrates do not prevent anginal episodes
• Prevents exercise induced tachycardia
• Onset of action 30 min after oral dose. 1-2 min IV
Therapeutic Actions
• Block Beta adrenergic receptors in the heart and juxtaglomerular apparatus
• Decrease the influence of the sympathetic nervous system decreasing excitability of the heart
• Decrease cardiac output.
• Indicated for long term management of anginal pectoris caused by atherosclerosis
Atenolol, metoprolol, and nadolol have the same actions, uses, and adverse effects as propranolol, but they have long half-lives and can be given once daily. They are excreted by the kidneys, and dosage must be reduced in clients with renal impairment.
Pharmacology is the study of drugs and the way they interact with living systems. Clinical pharmacology is the study of drugs in humans.
A drug is any chemical that can effect living processes.
Therapeutics: the medical use of drugs.
An ideal drug has several important properties. Three of these properties are of utmost importance: effectiveness, safety and selectivity.
Effectiveness: This is the most important quality that a drug can have. Effectiveness refers to the drug's ability to do what it is supposed to do.
Safety: Although no drug can be totally safe, proper usage can lessen the risks of adverse effects.
Selectivity: A truly selective drug would have no side effects, and would effect only the body process' for which it is designed and given. Therefore, there is no such thing as a selective drug.
Pharmacokinetics: The way the body deals with a drug. Pharmacokinetics is concerned with the processes of absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion.
Pharmacodynamics: What a drug does to the body.
Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics are two of the processes that determine how a person will respond to a drug. Other factors include how a drug is administered (dose, route, and timing of administration), interactions with other drugs, and individual physiological variables (weight, age, function of body systems).